06.19.2025: these are scratch notes for elona
- 3ms.ʾilə‘he is’
- 3fs.ʾila‘she is’
- 3pl.ʾina‘they are’
- 2ms.ʾivət‘you (ms.) are’
- 2fs.ʾivat‘you (fs.) are’
- 2pl.ʾitun‘you (pl.) are’
- 1ms.ʾivən‘I (ms.) am’
- 1fs.ʾivan‘I (fs.) am’
- 1pl.ʾivax‘we are’
Speakers in Tabriz use the 1ms. form ʾivən, ʾivəm and the 1fs. form ʾivən, ʾivam.
Speakers in Caucaus use the 1fs. form ʾila, ʾilani.
A copula can be used before (1) or after (2).
- ʾaha ʾila ⁺raba ⁺spay. ‘This is very good.’
- ʾaha ⁺raba ⁺spay ʾila. ‘This is very good.’
The default position of a copula is after (2). A copula that comes before (1) expresses a high degree of commitment by the speaker to the information they are conveying. A speaker may use a copula this way to convey important information to the listener or when trying to be persuasive.
- šəmmi ʾilə ninus. ‘My name is Ninus.’
- ʾaha ʾilə ⁺tajər. ‘This is a merchant.’
- ⁺ʾavva nǎsa ʾilə malca. ‘That man is the king.’
- k̭arǧə lena ⁺ʾabi! k̭arǧə ʾina cumə! ‘Crows are not blue! They are black!’
- la, ʾana ʾivən cpina! ‘No, I (ms.) am hungry!’
- ⁺baba mu marət!? ʾayya ʾila diva! ‘What are you saying!? She is the werewolf!’
When the present copula is used after, it generally attaches to the word before it as loose suffix. This means that it does not have stress and it absorbs the darkness of the word before it.
- 3ms.ʾəltəx꞊ilə‘he is downstairs’
- 3fs.ʾəltəx꞊ila‘she is downstairs’
- 3pl.ʾəltəx꞊ina‘they are downstairs’
- 2ms.ʾəltəx꞊ivət‘you (ms.) downstairs’
- 2fs.ʾəltəx꞊ivat‘you (fs.) downstairs’
- 2pl.ʾəltəx꞊itun‘you (pl.) downstairs’
- 1ms.ʾəltəx꞊ivən‘I (ms.) am downstairs’
- 1fs.ʾəltəx꞊ivan‘I (fs.) am downstairs’
- 1pl.ʾəltəx꞊ivax‘we are downstairs’
The sound /i/ of the copula is usually dropped.
- šlámalux! ⁺spay꞊vət? ‘Hello! Are you good?’
When the present copula attaches to the vowel /a/, the sound /a꞊i/ becomes /ə/.
- 3ms.láxxələ‘he is here’
- 3fs.láxxəla‘she is here’
- 3pl.láxxəna‘they are here’
- 2ms.láxxəvət‘you (ms.) are here’
- 2fs.láxxəvat‘you (fs.) are here’
- 2pl.láxxətun‘you (pl.) are here’
- 1ms.láxxəvən‘I (ms.) am here’
- 1fs.láxxəvan‘I (fs.) am here’
- 1pl.láxxəvax‘we are here’
When the present copula attaches to other vowels, the sound /i/ of the copula is abosrbed.
- 3ms.mə́nnolə‘he is with her’
- 3fs.mə́nnola‘she is with her’
- 3pl.mə́nnona‘they are with her’
- 2ms.mə́nnovət‘you (ms.) are with her’
- 2fs.mə́nnovat‘you (fs.) are with her’
- 2pl.mə́nnotun‘you (pl.) are with her’
- 1ms.mə́nnovən‘I (ms.) am with her’
- 1fs.mə́nnovan‘I (fs.) am with her’
- 1pl.mə́nnovax‘we are with her’
The sound /və/, /va/ of the copula is usually dropped.
- laxxət ‘you (ms.) are here’ < laxxəvət < laxxa + ivət
- mənnon ‘I (fs.) am with her’ < mənnovan < mənno + ivan
The final sound /ə/ of the copula is sometimes dropped.
- bərrák̭ələ bərrak̭əl bəxzayəl xa-dana xmara. ‘He is running and running and sees a donkey.’
The present copula is used to express a situation happening in the present moment.
- ʾatən laxxət. ‘You are here.’
The present copula is also used to express a situation that extends from the past and is still happening in the present moment.
- mən k̭édamta ʾatən láxxəvət ‘You have been here since morning.’
The present copula is also used to express the existance of something.
- xə́mmila. ‘My heat is (in existence) (= I am hot).’
- gu-beto xamšá ⁺ʾotáǧəna. ‘In her house five rooms are (in existence) (= There are five rooms).’
- č̭ərra č̭ərrət nášəla. ‘The screaming of people is (in existence) (= There is the screaming of people).’
- 3ms.ʾiva‘he were’
- 3fs.ʾiva‘she were’
- 3pl.ʾiva‘they were’
- 2ms.ʾītva‘you (ms.) were’
- 2fs.ʾītva‘you (fs.) were’
- 2pl.ʾítunva‘you (pl.) were’
- 1ms.ʾīnva‘I (ms.) were’
- 1fs.ʾīnva‘I (fs.) were’
- 1pl.ʾīxva‘we were’
Speakers in Tabriz use the 1ms. form ʾīnva, ʾīmva, ʾīmma and 1fs. form ʾīnva, ʾīmva, ʾīmma.
The past copula attaches the same way as the present copula.
- ʾəltəx꞊va ‘he was upstairs’ < ʾəltəx꞊iva < ʾəltəx + iva
- laxxətva ‘you were here’ < laxxa + itva
- mənnonva ‘I was with her’ < mənno + ixva
The past copula is used to express a situation that was happening in the past.
- cul-yuma k̭udmə ʾatən láxxətva. ‘All day yesterday you were here.’
- 3ms.lelə‘he is’
- 3fs.lela‘she is’
- 3pl.lena‘they are’
- 2ms.levət‘you (ms.) are’
- 2fs.levat‘you (fs.) are’
- 2pl.letun‘you (pl.) are’
- 1ms.levən‘I (ms.) am’
- 1fs.levan‘I (fs.) am’
- 1pl.levax‘we are’
Speakers in Tabriz use the 1ms. form levən, levəm and 1fs. form levan, levam.
The sound /və/, /va/ of the copula is usually dropped.
- lēt laxxa ‘you are not here’
- lēn mənno ‘I am not with her’
The final sound /ə/ of the copula is sometimes dropped.
- ⁺ṱavvúyələ ⁺ṱavvúyələ ʾina ⁺xoru lēl gu-beta. ‘He is searching and searching but his friend is not in the house.’
The negative present copula is used to express a situation that is not happening in the present moment.
- ʾayya lela cpənta. šukla. ‘She is not hungry. Leave her be.’
- 3ms.leva‘he was not’
- 3fs.leva‘she was not’
- 3pl.leva‘they were not’
- 2ms.lētva‘you (ms.) were not’
- 2fs.lētva‘you (fs.) were not’
- 2pl.létunva‘you (pl.) were not’
- 1ms.lēnva‘I (ms.) were not’
- 1fs.lēnva‘I (fs.) were not’
- 1pl.lēxva‘we were not’
Speakers in Tabriz use the 1ms. form lēnva, lēmva, lēmma and 1fs. form lēnva, lēmva, lēmma.
The negative past copula is used to express a situation that was not happening in the past.
- ʾayya leva cpənta! k̭a-mú ⁺hala ⁺ʾajjuzot? ‘She was not hungry! Why are you still bothering her?’
- 3ms.dulə‘he is’
- 3fs.dula‘she is’
- 3pl.duna‘they are’
- 2ms.duvət‘you (ms.) are’
- 2fs.duvat‘you (fs.) are’
- 2pl.duytun‘you (pl.) are’
- 1ms.duvən‘I (ms.) am’
- 1fs.duvan‘I (fs.) am’
- 1pl.duvax‘we are’
The sound /və/, /va/ of the copula is usually dropped.
- dūt laxxa ‘you are here’
- dūn mənno ‘I am with her’
The final sound /ə/ of the copula is sometimes dropped.
- xzi dūl laxxa! ‘Look it is here!’
The near copula is used instead of the present copula to emphasize a situation happening physically near the speech situation. It corresponds to the near demonstrative and the word laxxa ‘here’.
- dula! ‘There she is!’ (speaker is spotting someone who has just enterred the conversation)
- hənna dula ⁺laxxa. ‘Here, here it is.’ (speaker is presenting something)
- ⁺baba duna ⁺ʾal-miz! ‘Agh, here they are on the table!’ (speaker has found something)
- dūn bitá! ‘I am coming!’ (speaker is being called downstairs and is on their way)
- dula meša k̭am-patax. ‘The forest is right here in front of you.’ (speaker is pointing to a forest in front of them)
- 3ms.velə‘he is’
- 3fs.vela‘she is’
- 3pl.vena‘they are’
The final sound /ə/ of the copula is sometimes dropped.
The near copula is used instead of the present copula to emphasize a situation happening physically far from the speech situation. It correspond to the far demonstrative and the word ⁺tamma ‘there’.
- vela! ‘There she is!’ (speaker is spotting someone in the distance)
- xzi vena ⁺tamma! ‘Look, they are right there!’ (speaker is gesturing to some people in the distance)
- vela meša k̭urba ‘The forest is nearby.’ (speaker is pointing to a forest nearby)
- vena bitá. ‘They are coming.’ (speaker is pointing to a group of approaching people)
- ⁺xorux velə bəxya. ‘Your friend is there crying.’ (speaker is spotted the listener’s friend in the corner)